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This article is a continuation of a series on FSA photographs by Marion Post Wolcott documenting the lives of Americans during the Great Depression and New Deal policies established to provide relief to the country’s most impoverished farmers. Discussion questions for educators relating to agricultural migrant workers during this time and also today follow at the end.

Imagine millions of Americans losing their jobs, wages, homes, or farms almost simultaneously, including hundreds of thousands forced by desperation to pack up their cars or jump on a train, abandon their homes and community roots, and steer hopefully toward a better life elsewhere. This massive human migration is one of the hallmarks of the Great Depression.

A multitude of worldwide pressures contributed to the country’s economic disaster. Both a global and national recession triggered the stock market crash of 1929, bank closures, plummeting wages, and nearly 25 percent unemployment of the nation’s workforce. By 1933, almost 45 percent of farms faced foreclosure. Many Americans lost their life savings and were left destitute. Farmers in the Great Plains squeezed their soil dry, already depleted from decades of intensive farming, to compensate for market price drops in crops through mechanization, cultivation of more land, and overextended investments. On the brink of survival, they were struck by a long drought which generated dust storms across the parched plains, destroying farms, leaving over half a million Americans homeless, and causing a migration of nearly three million people out of the American Midwest.

Joining the farmers escaping the Dust Bowl and unemployed workers from the city were millions of tenant farmers and sharecroppers in the largely rural South where more than 80 percent of Black Americans lived and faced deep poverty, Jim Crow laws, and slavery’s legacy. Americans of diverse races and classes, many accustomed to modern conveniences such as electricity and indoor plumbing and others stuck in impoverished cycles, headed toward the milder climates of states such as California and Florida to seek farm work, long growing seasons, a variety of crops, and staggered harvests. As they converged on relatively productive land, often they still were faced with a struggle to find opportunities amid overburdened infrastructure. Labor exceeded jobs, which further reduced wages. Traveling from crop to crop, they lived in shantytowns, squalid camps, and primitive shelters—conditions that exacerbated discriminatory attitudes toward migrant workers, and added to social frictions and the trauma of dislocation.

Child of Migrant Family in Front of Shack, Florida, 1939, by Marion Post Wolcott; photo courtesy Carey Moncaster

A New Deal for the American People
Inaugurated into this national upheaval in 1933, President Roosevelt swiftly put his New Deal into action—a comprehensive and innovative program of economic recovery. The “Three R’s” focused on relief for the unemployed and impoverished, recovery of the economy, and reform of the financial system to prevent a repeat depression. The government launched numerous federal agencies and programs to provide critical relief to the displaced American workforce and agricultural communities.

The Farm Security Administration, in particular, resettled poor migrants on productive land, building entire communities, cooperatives, schools, and residential camps with running water and sanitary conditions. Agricultural workers were helped to buy equipment, sell crops, manage debt, and purchase farms. It also provided safe spaces away from discrimination where migrants could engage in cultural and recreational activities and rekindle a sense of stability.

The New Deal signified a new relationship between the American people and their government by taking on a larger role and many new responsibilities for the welfare of the American people. The government’s involvement in such affairs was unprecedented. Agencies such as the CCC (Civilian Conservation Corps), FDIC (Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation), SEC (Securities and Exchange Commission), and Social Security Administration were established in this era. Critics complained that the programs went too far, or not far enough, to protect the wellbeing of American citizens. As New Deal programs changed the political, social, and economic landscape of the United States, the government attempted to provide relief in ways that didn’t compromise the values, pride, and work ethic of the American people. Many of these themes remain a common thread in domestic political discourse today.

Farm Security Administration (FSA) Photography
To defend and promote the resettlement projects, the FSA hired photographers to document rural poverty, publicize governmental efforts to alleviate it, and galvanize political support for Congressional funding. The FSA photographers recorded the human toll and ecological plight of the Great Depression and its aftermath. Between 1935 and 1944, they took over 175,000 images of life during this time of despair, relocation, and recovery, enabling Americans not only to imagine but also clearly visualize this profound period of American history.

The scourge of the Depression continued until 1941 when the United States entered World War II, the national economy ramped up with the defense industry, and Americans enlisted in the military. As a result of New Deal programs, many of the migrant workers put down roots in their new communities.

Discussion Questions

1. Look at the two FSA photos included in this article. What details do you notice? What conclusions can be drawn? What do you think prompted the photographer to take these particular pictures? How do you think images such as these helped stir public support for New Deal programs?
    
2. How do you distinguish between impartial documentation and political propaganda? How do a photographer’s biases and assumptions influence a photograph? Can you think of a current example of a press image that could be used to influence the public’s view on an event or issue?
    
3. What do you think might happen if federal agencies such as the Social Security Administration and the FDIC didn’t exist today? What role does the government have in protecting the basic welfare and safety of its citizens?
    
4. How have the living conditions of agricultural migrant workers in the United States improved since the 1930s? Starting in the early 1960s, farm workers and their leaders organized a series of marches, national consumer boycotts, and fasts that attracted national headlines publicizing the working conditions of farm workers. They ultimately established the , the nation’s first enduring and largest farm workers’ union. What are some of the issues on which the UFW continues to focus its activism today?
    
5. Created by executive order following the United States’ entrance into World War II, the Bracero Program (1942–1964) brought millions of Mexican guest workers to the United States. Braceros were contracted to fill labor shortages in low-paying agricultural jobs needing to be filled as American farm laborers enlisted in the military and factory jobs and those of Japanese descent were forced into war “relocation camps.” Farm workers already living in the United States were concerned that braceros would compete for jobs and lower wages as, desperate for work, braceros were willing to endure working conditions increasingly scorned by American workers. What do you think are the pros and cons of this program, and how do you think its legacy influences the United States today? How important is immigration to the U.S. economy and national security? How have the rich and diverse cultures of immigrant farm workers influenced American life?
    
6. The mechanization of farm work contributed toward both the consolidation of small farms and displacement of agricultural jobs. Today, a discussion around the impact of artificial intelligence (AI) on the workforce continues to raise similar concerns in agriculture as well as other sectors. What do you think are some pros and cons of this technological development?
    
7. According to national reports from the and the , an estimated 2 to 3 million migratory and seasonal agricultural workers live in the United States. Why do you think the majority of these agricultural laborers are from other countries? Do you think discrimination continues to plague these communities, and, if so, why?
    
8. Consider investigating where the fruits and vegetables you eat are harvested and the general background of the farm workers who pick and pack them for sale. The provides a dashboard for research. Can you find additional resources?

Acknowledgements

I would like to acknowledge and thank educators Litza Griffin-Johnson (Mercer Island) and Wendy Ewbank (Seattle) for their discussion of these photographs and the New Deal. Their comments were invaluable and helped to inform the focus of this article.

On August 9, 2022, a virtual award ceremony was held to recognize the 12 honorees of 91�Թ�’s 2021–2022 regional programs in Japan. These students performed at the highest levels in their respective courses. Their names, high schools, and final research project titles appear below.

Stanford e-Fukuoka (Instructor )

• Kasane Horiuchi (Tochiku High School), “Research on Plastic Bottle Recycling”
• Mihiro Tomomatsu (Hakata Seisho High School), “Break Invisible Barriers. Create the World that Everyone Needs”
   

Stanford e-Hiroshima (Instructor Rylan Sekiguchi)

• Minori Imai (Hiroshima Prefectural Kuremitsuta High School), “All Lives Are Important”
• Yui Miyake, (Hiroshima Prefectural Hiroshima High School), “U.S. Prison System: How the Country’s History of Racial Inequality Drives the High Rate of Incarceration in America”
   

Stanford e-Kawasaki (Instructor )

• Sayaka Kiyotomo (Kawasaki High School), “How Can We Improve Junior and Senior High School English Education in Japan?”
• Anne Fukushima (Tachibana High School), “How Are Invisible Disorders Accepted in the United States and Japan?”

Stanford e-Kobe (Instructor Alison Harsch)

• Nonoha Toji (Kobe University Secondary School), “How to Foster Entrepreneurship in School Days: Between U.S. and Japan”
• Cullen Hiroki Morita (Kobe Municipal Fukiai High School), “The Different Work-Life Balance in Japan and America”
   

Stanford e-Oita (Instructor Kasumi Yamashita)

• Rina Imai (Usa High School), “Learn 91�Թ� War and Peace Through the Naval Air Base Bunkers in Oita”
• Yuki Nojiri (Hofu High School), “I Want to Live in the Second House of the Three Little Pigs”

Stanford e-Tottori (Instructor Jonas Edman)

• Sakurako Kano (Tottori Keiai High School), “Being Proactive”
• Yuki Yamane (Tottori Nishi High School), “The Effect of Collectivism and Individualism on Education”
   

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The event began with welcoming remarks by the Honorable Hajime Kishimori, Acting Consul General of Japan in San Francisco, who recognized the students for their impressive academic achievement. “You have demonstrated initiative and dedication to enhancing your understanding of Japan and the United States. I’d like to congratulate all of you.” He also expressed his hope for the students to play an active role in the future of U.S.–Japan relations. “I hope that your experiences have motivated you to consider an international career involving Japan and the United States. I believe the future of Japan–U.S. relations is in the hands of the next generation, and I hope young leaders like you will continue to strengthen our countries’ friendship as we move forward.”

Following Acting Consul General Kishimori’s remarks, each honoree delivered a formal research presentation in English and fielded questions from the audience. Each honoree also received a plaque to recognize their award.

For the instructors, it was a joy to watch the students present the research projects they worked for months to refine. “It’s so rewarding to see their hard work pay off,” commented Stanford e-Kobe Instructor Alison Harsch. “You can’t help but feel proud of them—for their academic accomplishments, but also for the ways they’ve grown as young adults over the course of the program.”

Stanford e-Fukuoka honoree Kasane Horiuchi is a case in point. Thinking back on her experience in the course, she reflected, “At first, I hesitated to speak up in class, but my instructor always encouraged us to be brave and told us that making mistakes was important. Thanks to her encouragement, I was able to talk with my classmates and enjoyed participating in every class. This experience was so important to me.”

91�Թ� would like to thank its collaborators at the Fukuoka, Hiroshima, Oita, and Tottori Prefectural Boards of Education, Kawasaki City, and Kobe City, who have helped make these regional programs a success. 91�Թ� would also like to thank Fukuoka Governor Seitaro Hattori, Hiroshima Governor Hidehiko Yuzaki, Kawasaki Mayor Norihiko Fukuda, Kobe Mayor Kizo Hisamoto, Oita Governor Katsusada Hirose, and Tottori Governor Shinji Hirai for their continued support of these regional programs.

91�Թ�’s regional programs are a subset of our local student programs in Japan.

To stay informed of news about 91�Թ�, and follow us on , , and .

Stanford e-Entrepreneurship Japan is a partnership between 91�Թ� and NPO e-Entrepreneurship, which is led by Yusuke “Ed” Matsuda and Junna Hagiwara. Stanford e-Entrepreneurship Japan enrolls exceptional high school students from Japan. Top Japanese and American scholars and entrepreneurs provide web-based lectures and engage students in live discussion sessions or “virtual classes” on topics like design thinking, health and welfare, agriculture, environment and energy, and education and technology. The course is offered in English and includes reading assignments, online lectures, discussion board posts, and research projects. Students who successfully complete the course receive a Certificate of Completion from 91�Թ�, 91�Թ�.

On August 15, 2022, NPO e-Entrepreneurship’s Junna Hagiwara facilitated an online ceremony during which the top two students from the summer 2021 course and the top two students from the fall 2021 were honored. The honorees also gave presentations on their research papers. The honorees and the titles of their research paper topics are:

Summer 2021

• Yamato Obinata, Shibuya Makuhari Senior High School, Chiba; “School Truancy”
• Scott Watanuki, Iolani High School, Honolulu; “A Cost-Effective Solution for Diagnosing Cataracts in Developing Countries”
   

Fall 2021

• Mona Abe, Urawa Akenohoshi Girls’ Senior High School, Saitama Prefecture; “Eliminating Labor Exploitation: Taking an Individual Approach to Ethical Fashion”
• Nahoko Okamoto, Kikuzato High School, Aichi Prefecture; “LGBTQ+ Inclusivity”

Following each presentation, each honoree fielded questions from an audience of teachers, fellow Stanford e-Entrepreneurship Japan students, and members of the 91�Թ�/Stanford community. While listening to their presentations and the Q&A period, Hagiwara noted, “It became clear to me why these four students were chosen as the honorees by their instructors. Stanford e-Entrepreneurship Japan has the objective of empowering students with creative thinking and problem-solving skills with a focus on social innovation to solve global issues. This certainly came through each presentation during the ceremony.”

Instructor stated the following about the summer 2021 course. “Throughout the course, the students learned to work together to build a solution for a problem, and I hope that this experience helped them realize that the more different ideas and perspectives they bring in, the more innovative they can be in problem-solving. Both Yamato and Scott not only demonstrated innovation but also excellent leadership in fostering teamwork and collaboration.”

Reflecting on the fall 2021 course, Instructor Irene Bryant noted, “As we navigated another year of the pandemic, I was impressed with how students were able to empathize with their classmates and step up to help one another during challenging times. It was also great to see them apply new skills and improve how they approached each new topic as the course progressed. Mona and Nahoko, our fall honorees, showed exceptional leadership skills and their ability to grasp the importance of empathy really showed in their work.”

The fall 2021 course was generously supported by Noriko & Norman Chen and Andrew & Mako Ogawa. The spring 2022 course was generously supported by the Water Dragon Foundation. Bryant, Bacha, and Hagiwara are grateful to Mitsuhito Ikeda, a senior at International Christian University, who contributed his time to both the fall and spring courses.

Stanford e-Japan is an online course that teaches Japanese high school students about U.S. society and culture and U.S.–Japan relations. The course introduces students to both U.S. and Japanese perspectives on many historical and contemporary issues. It is offered biannually by the  (91�Թ�). Stanford e-Japan is supported by the .

In August 2023, three of the top students of the Spring 2022 Stanford e-Japan distance-learning course will be honored at a Japan Day ceremony through 91�Թ�. The three Stanford e-Japan honorees—Hana Kameyama (Seikei High School, Tokyo), Miyu Kato (Hiroshima Prefectural Senior High School, Hiroshima), and Yuta Muraki (Matsumoto Shuho Secondary School, Nagano)—will be recognized for their coursework and exceptional research essays that focused respectively on “A Comparative Analysis between the United States of America and Japan: Women in STEM,” “U.S. Public Health Policy in Hospitals for People with Disabilities,” and “Legitimacy of the United States and Japan as Permanent Members of the Security Council from the Viewpoint of Regional Representation.”

Mona Abe (Urawa Akenohoshi Girls’ Senior High School, Saitama) received an Honorable Mention for her research paper on “Protecting Undocumented Children in the U.S. and Japan: Extending DACA.” Oki Sugiyama (Musashi High School, Tokyo) also received an Honorable Mention for his paper on “A Study on Machine Translation Application to Strengthen the U.S.–Japan Relationship.”

All 28 students successfully completed the Spring 2022 session of Stanford e-Japan. They represented the following schools: Ashiya International Secondary School (Hyogo); Columbia International School (Saitama); Hachinohe High School (Aomori); Hiroshima Prefectural Senior High School (Hiroshima); Hyogo Prefectural Ono High School (Hyogo); Kagoshima Prefectural Oshima High School (Kagoshima); Kaishi Kokusai High School (Niigata); Katoh Gakuen Gyoshu Senior High School (Shizuoka); Keio Girls Senior High School (Tokyo); Kumamoto High School (Kumamoto); Kyoto Prefectural Rakuhoku Senior High School (Kyoto); Lycée Français International de Kyoto (Kyoto); Matsumoto Shuho Secondary School (Nagano); Matsuyama Higashi High School (Ehime); Musashi High School (Tokyo); Okinawa Prefectural Yokatsu High School (Okinawa); Omiya High School (Saitama); Sapporo Minami High School (Hokkaido); Seikei High School (Tokyo); Seisen Junior and Senior High School (Kanagawa); Takada High School (Mie); Taki High School (Aichi); Tamagawa Academy (Tokyo); Tennoji High School attached to Osaka Kyoiku University (Osaka); Tokyo Gakugei University International Secondary School (Tokyo); Tokyo Metropolitan Kokusai High School (Tokyo); Touoh Gakkan High School (Yamagata); and Urawa Akenohoshi Girls’ Senior High School (Saitama).

For more information about the Stanford e-Japan Program, please visit . The application period for the spring 2023 session will begin November 15, 2022.

To stay informed of news about Stanford e-Japan and 91�Թ�’s other programs,  and follow us on , , and .

The following article is a guest post written by Thea Louise Dai, an alumna of the Spring 2022 China Scholars Program. In April 2022, Thea met Wendy Wen, an alumna of the Spring 2022 Stanford e-China Program. Currently, Thea Louise is a junior at Castilleja School in Palo Alto, California, and Wendy Wen is a junior at Beijing National Day School in Beijing, China.

In April 2022, I met Wendy Wen through a collaboration between the China Scholars Program (CSP) and Stanford e-China. Five months later, we are working together to prepare the first synchronous Zoom discussion at Project 17—a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization we founded dedicated to initiating global dialogue through synchronous discussions about the 17 (SDGs) of the United Nations.

The CSP and Stanford e-China collaboration was no doubt my most stimulating academic experience to date. The two programs held four joint discussions on various climate issues over the course of several weeks. With the rare opportunity to bridge geographical and cultural divides, I finally had a chance to apply everything I had learned about China’s history, policies, and current events throughout the program in conversation with actual Chinese students, from whom I learned new perspectives. Although we only had to participate in one of the synchronous discussions, I found myself looking forward to each meeting and rearranging my schedule to attend all four.

Wendy recalls that she had a similarly eye-opening experience during the meetings. She noted, “I have always believed that the world’s largest challenges can be solved through global collaboration. After every discussion with the CSP, I left feeling inspired to know that such collaboration is possible, even for high school students.”

After meeting each other through a breakout room conversation, we immediately connected on the need for a global discussion platform targeted towards youth perspectives. Essentially, we hoped to capture the value of our experience with 91�Թ�, and we wanted to make it even more accessible and on a larger scale. We also wanted to clear a pathway for participants to take the next steps to create tangible change on the SDGs after our discussions.

As a result, we conceptualized Project 17 in part to partner with the chapter system of the (UNA-USA) so that high school and college students have the unique opportunity to connect with UNA-USA officials and members across the United States. Our vision is for all participants to be able to share their perspectives on the SDGs to inform the UNA-USA chapter system. We’re also working with Stanford e-China Instructor and CSP Instructor Tanya Lee of 91�Թ� to publish the SDG-related research and reflections of participants on larger platforms.

Project 17 hosts four annual synchronous Zoom discussions, each focused on a particular group of SDGs: Planet, People, Prosperity, and Peace & Partnership. Our first discussion about the planet will take place in November 2022 and run for two hours. Interested students can complete the on the Project 17 website to apply for an opportunity to hear from SDG advocates, learn from NGO leaders, and participate in breakout room discussions with youth leaders around the world. High school and college students based in any country are eligible to participate.

Project 17 discussion structure; photo courtesy Thea Louise Dai

In the span of four months, Project 17’s outreach efforts have reached 51 cities, 47 schools, and five different countries. Participants will build connections with students from different backgrounds and develop a global mindset by engaging with new perspectives. In addition, participants can contribute to asynchronous discussion boards and the Project 17 blog, receive bimonthly newsletters about the SDGs, and receive certified service hours eligible for the .

By incorporating these opportunities into our organization, we hope to create an experience similar to the invaluable experiences that Wendy and I had through the CSP and Stanford e-China. Inspired by 91�Թ�’s impact, we are incredibly excited to start an initiative similarly promoting international and cross-cultural collaboration. Please note that Project 17 is not a Stanford 91�Թ� program.

For more information, visit Project 17’s website () or contact Project 17 at contact@projectseventeen.org.